In contrast incorporating the interactions between the crop-soil system the machine learning approach demonstrated an average optimal plant density OPD of 78 × 104 plants ha-1 and a grain yield of 117

In contrast, the machine learning approach incorporated the interactions between the crop-soil system, resulting in an average optimal plant density (OPD) of 7.8 × 104 plants ha-1 and a grain yield of 11.7 Mg ha-1. These findings were validated through field trials.