Operant Conditioning: Understanding Schedules of Reinforcement - A Comprehensive Guide

(a) Four schedules of reinforcement are:\n1. Fixed Ratio (FR) Schedule\n2. Variable Ratio (VR) Schedule\n3. Fixed Interval (FI) Schedule\n4. Variable Interval (VI) Schedule\n\n(b) Explanation of each schedule:\n1. Fixed Ratio (FR) Schedule: In this schedule, reinforcement is provided after a fixed number of responses. For example, a rat may receive a food pellet after pressing a lever five times. This schedule typically leads to a high rate of responding with short pauses after reinforcement.\n2. Variable Ratio (VR) Schedule: In this schedule, reinforcement is provided after an average number of responses, but the exact number varies unpredictably. For example, a slot machine's payout is based on a variable ratio schedule, as the number of lever presses required to win can vary. This schedule typically leads to a high and steady rate of responding with minimal pauses.\n3. Fixed Interval (FI) Schedule: In this schedule, reinforcement is provided for the first response after a fixed amount of time has passed. For example, a pigeon may receive food after pecking a key for 30 seconds. This schedule often leads to a low rate of responding with a gradual increase as the reinforcement time approaches.\n4. Variable Interval (VI) Schedule: In this schedule, reinforcement is provided for the first response after an average amount of time has passed, but the exact time varies unpredictably. For example, a teacher randomly praising students for good behavior during a class period follows a variable interval schedule. This schedule typically leads to a moderate and steady rate of responding with no distinct pauses.\n\n(c) Examples for each schedule of reinforcement:\n1. Fixed Ratio (FR) Schedule: A salesperson receiving a bonus for every 10 products sold.\n2. Variable Ratio (VR) Schedule: A gambler receiving a jackpot on a slot machine after an average of 50 pulls.\n3. Fixed Interval (FI) Schedule: A student studying for a test and getting reinforcement for studying after every 30 minutes.\n4. Variable Interval (VI) Schedule: A manager providing praise to employees at random times during the workday for their performance.