Teacher Immediacy: A Comprehensive Review of Literature and its Impact on Student Learning

Introduction

Teacher immediacy refers to the extent to which a teacher communicates and interacts with their students in ways that promote closeness, involvement, and warmth. According to Mehrabian (1971), immediacy behaviors are nonverbal cues that convey warmth, friendliness, and involvement. These behaviors include eye contact, smiling, nodding, gesturing, and using humor. However, the concept of teacher immediacy goes beyond nonverbal behaviors and also includes verbal communication, such as the use of personal pronouns, humor, and positive feedback (Gorham & Christophel, 1992). This paper provides a comprehensive review of the literature on teacher immediacy, including its definition, measurement, antecedents, consequences, and practical implications.

Definition of Teacher Immediacy

The concept of teacher immediacy has been defined in various ways by different scholars. For instance, Richmond and McCroskey (2000) defined teacher immediacy as 'the degree of perceived physical or psychological closeness between people that is communicated by verbal and nonverbal behaviors' (p. 1). Similarly, Gorham and Christophel (1992) defined it as 'the degree of perceived closeness between teachers and students, as well as the level of interest and involvement teachers communicate to students through their verbal and nonverbal behaviors' (p. 46). According to these definitions, teacher immediacy is a multidimensional construct that includes both verbal and nonverbal behaviors that promote closeness, involvement, and warmth.

Measurement of Teacher Immediacy

Several instruments have been developed to measure teacher immediacy, including the Teacher Immediacy Scale (TIS; Mehrabian, 1996), the Classroom Communication Inventory (CCI; Gorham & Christophel, 1992), and the Verbal and Nonverbal Immediacy Scale (VNIS; Richmond & McCroskey, 1995). The TIS is a 16-item questionnaire that measures the degree to which a teacher communicates warmth, friendliness, and involvement through nonverbal behaviors. The CCI is a 30-item questionnaire that measures the degree to which a teacher communicates involvement, caring, and respect through both verbal and nonverbal behaviors. The VNIS is a 24-item questionnaire that measures the degree to which a teacher communicates immediacy through both verbal and nonverbal behaviors. These instruments have been found to be reliable and valid measures of teacher immediacy.

Antecedents of Teacher Immediacy

Several factors have been found to be associated with teacher immediacy, including teacher gender, experience, and personality, student gender, age, and ethnicity, and classroom context (Gorham & Christophel, 1992). For instance, female teachers have been found to be more immediate than male teachers (Richmond & McCroskey, 2000), and experienced teachers have been found to be more immediate than novice teachers (Christophel & Gorham, 1995). Moreover, students' gender, age, and ethnicity have been found to influence their perceptions of teacher immediacy, with female students perceiving more immediacy than male students, younger students perceiving more immediacy than older students, and minority students perceiving less immediacy than majority students (Christophel, 1990).

Consequences of Teacher Immediacy

Teacher immediacy has been found to have several positive consequences for both teachers and students. For instance, teachers who communicate immediacy have been found to be more effective in promoting student learning, motivation, and satisfaction (Gorham & Christophel, 1992). Moreover, students who perceive their teachers as immediate have been found to be more engaged, motivated, and satisfied with their learning experiences (Wanzer et al., 2006). Additionally, teacher immediacy has been found to be positively related to students' academic achievement, self-esteem, and social support (Richmond & McCroskey, 2000).

Practical Implications of Teacher Immediacy

Given the positive effects of teacher immediacy on student learning and motivation, it is important for teachers to develop and maintain a high level of immediacy in their communication with students. Some practical strategies that teachers can use to promote immediacy include using humor, providing positive feedback, using personal pronouns, and engaging in nonverbal behaviors such as eye contact and smiling (Gorham & Christophel, 1992). Moreover, teachers can use technology, such as video conferencing and online discussion forums, to promote immediacy in online learning environments (Lowenthal et al., 2018).

Conclusion

Teacher immediacy is a concept that refers to the degree to which a teacher communicates and interacts with their students in ways that promote closeness, involvement, and warmth. It is a multidimensional construct that includes both verbal and nonverbal behaviors. Teacher immediacy has been found to have several positive consequences for both teachers and students, including promoting student learning, motivation, and satisfaction. Given the importance of teacher immediacy in promoting positive learning outcomes, it is important for teachers to develop and maintain a high level of immediacy in their communication with students.

References

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Christophel, D. M., & Gorham, J. (1995). A test-retest analysis of student motivation, teacher immediacy, and perceived sources of motivation and demotivation in college classes. Communication Education, 44(4), 292-306. DOI: 10.1080/03634529509378988

Gorham, J., & Christophel, D. M. (1992). Students' perceptions of teacher behaviors as motivating and demotivating factors in college classes. Communication Quarterly, 40(3), 239-252. DOI: 10.1080/01463379209369879

Lowenthal, P. R., Dunlap, J. C., & Snelson, C. (2018). Live synchronous web meetings in asynchronous online courses: Reconceptualizing virtual office hours. Online Learning, 22(2), 177-192. DOI: 10.24059/olj.v22i2.1206

Mehrabian, A. (1971). Silent messages: Implicit communication of emotions and attitudes. Wadsworth.

Mehrabian, A. (1996). The TIS scale. Retrieved from http://www.kaaj.com/psych/tis.html

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Richmond, V. P., & McCroskey, J. C. (1995). The impact of communication apprehension and fear of negative evaluation on verbal and nonverbal immediacy. Journal of Applied Communication Research, 23(3), 253-262. DOI: 10.1080/00909889509365454

Wanzer, M. B., Frymier, A. B., & Irwin, J. (2006). An explanation of the relationship between teacher immediacy and student learning: The role of affinity-seeking and perceived control. Communication Education, 55(1), 73-85. DOI: 10.1080/03634520500343368